Exploring Propaganda: A General Overview and Synopsis of Selected Resources for Further Reading

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Note: Image generated from/with Dall-e (2023), an artificial intelligence program designed and owned by OpenAI.

Introduction

The Encyclopedia Brittanica (Smith, n.d.) defines 'Propaganda' as the dissemination of information (regardless of type) to influence public opinion. Smith (n.d.) further refines this in essence as: A deliberate, systematic effort to influence the opinion of a population using the distortion of symbols (e.g., words, signs, etc.) and/or deliberately curated selection of facts and information; to achieve a desired outcome. The author indicates that selectivity and manipulation differentiate propaganda from other forms of information dissemination, providing education as an example. Importantly Smith (n.d.) emphasizes that the connotations of the word propaganda have changed between positive, neutral, and negative (With the author noting other connotations dependent upon culture, country, and affiliated disseminator [e.g., agitative propaganda for Soviet active measures or advertising in the commercial sector]). Smith (n.d.) examples this changing form and connotation by connecting the use of more physical symbols (e.g., elaborate palace structures) to the use of media (alternatively mass media) within a contemporary context (Noting a more elaborate propaganda system or network more reliant on mass media to facilitate the spread and adoption/internalization of the information.).

General Overview

Smith (n.d.) transitions from the use of propaganda by ancient elite classes (e.g., rulers, priests, etc.) to the beginnings of the theory that surrounds the concept of propaganda. The author implies the study of rhetoric in Ancient Athens (With particular note to the debate surrounding source credibility.) was the beginning of what would become the theory of propaganda and traces similar frameworks across multiple geographical locations and temporal periods (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2016; Smith, n.d.). Smith (n.d.) relates the advent of modern propaganda theory to advertising, beginning with or shortly following the Industrial Revolution, before indicating a transition to governmental use. The author connects several disciplines that can inform and enhance propaganda efforts, such as history, psychology, social psychology, research-related skills, and familiarity with statistics (inferential). I would add network or systems theory, information theory, and a base understanding of probability into the knowledge required within a contemporary setting.

Smith (n.d.) finishes by listing several of the components involved in propaganda campaigns (as well as providing a rough operationalization framework/process) before addressing some of the ways that varying forms of government can use social factors to mitigate or reduce the widespread adoption of inflammatory materials and propaganda. While managing the full scope of the theory and concepts associated with propaganda is either not feasible due to time constraints or the multidisciplinary nature; there are a few widely applicable concepts from a US-based perspective. A video, with the information provided by Jason Stanley on behalf of BigThink, can be found here; which provides a succinct but comprehensive description and concept for propaganda and supports the above information when other supplementary resources are included (Biographics, 2019; International Spy Museum, 2023; Stanley & BigThink, n.d.).

The Tricolor Framework

The first concept will be referred to as the "Tricolor Framework of Propaganda,"" with details described in Bradford (2023) and CIA (2016) and supplemented by Biographics (2019), International Spy Museum (2023), and (in general) Stanley & BigThink, (n.d.) with Smith (n.d.).

• White Propaganda- Both CIA (2016) and Bradford (2023) indicate that white propaganda consists of a known source affiliation.g.g., a company, government, etc.), often with a known or knowable intent; which is usually, but not always aligned with 'good' intentions or aimed within the public interest. While white propaganda can (and primarily appears to) consist of 'True' facts, those facts can be used (via manipulation, omission, and narrative framing [structural and otherwise]) to induce the desired reaction, behavior, mind frame, emotion, etc.; to achieve a desired outcome. [Source Material: Bradford, 2023; CIA, 2016; International Spy Museum (2023); Smith (n.d.); Stanley & BigThink (n.d.)].

• Gray (U.K.: Grey) Propaganda- Bradford (2023) indicates that gray (or grey depending on location) propaganda consists of three actors (for simplicity). These are Actor A-The Source Messenger, Actor B- An intermediary messenger/information system or type/proxy actors; and Actor C- The receiver of the message as it appears across the whole of the consumed information environment and that which is ultimately internalized into a belief system. An example would be Actor A as; A source who wishes to remain relatively anonymous, regardless of purpose [Bradford (2013) implies political motivations, specifically citing astroturfing and regarding foreign policy, the seeding of news stories as opposed to ads.]. That uses some intermediary (Actor-B) [who either knows of this or not, e.g., a news outlet vs./or proxy group] to disseminate and propagate the information and ultimately create the desired outcome or narrative required. This information (in essence 'laundered'') is then consumed by Actor C, who either does or does not (or some variation of both); adopt the desired belief structure to create a 'real' result ultimately (Policy Change, Destabilization, demoralization, etc.). CIA (2016) implies gray propaganda's hallmark feature is ambiguity or, near unlikely-impossible, ability to attribute it to the originating source. In an alternative view, it makes use of the inherently noisy information environment to facilitate the unobserved propagation and adoption of a desired narrative or perception of the current environment (real and informational); by using a trusted intermediary [or appearance of one]; to impact the decision-making cycle to create a desired outcome (Angerman, n.d.; Bradford, 2023; Bruce, 2020; Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2016; Kovach et al., 2015; Smith, n.d.; Stanley & BigThink, n.d.).[Source Materials are: (Angerman, n.d.; Bradford, 2023; Bruce, 2020; Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2016; Kovach et al., 2015; Smith, n.d.; Stanley & BigThink, n.d.)]

• Black Propaganda- Bradford (2023) states that one indicator of black propaganda is the lack of clear attribution; however, the author notes it takes this a step beyond. Actor A is an adversarial actor for Actor C, most notably and frequently framed in a conflict-related narrative setting (Biographics, 2019; Bradford, 2023; CIA, 2016). [Source Material: (Biographics, 2019; Bradford, 2023; Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2016; Smith, n.d.; Stanley & BigThink, n.d.)]

The 'Information Type Framework"

Like many complicated and fluid systems (McCormick, 2023), the information environment remains ever-changing. That results in difficulty managing the integrity of information, predicting the exact nature and origin point of narratives, and predicting the adverse outcomes of a tainted information environment. Another result is that there are many frameworks to model propaganda [Which appears to align primarily with Disinformation and Malinformation, with Misinformation as an intentional or unintentional beneficial side-effect (CISA, n.d.).]. One such comes from Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Agency [CISA] (n.d.), and can be called the 'Information Type Framework," which consists of:

• Misinformation- CISA (n.d.) states that misinformation is false information without malicious intent.

• Disinformation- CISA (n.d.) states that disinformation is false information intentionally created to mislead, manipulate, or harm any number of persons.

• Malinformation- CISA (n.d.) indicates that malinformation is factual information selectively used to mislead or influence.

Additional Concepts of Importance in Brief

Other frameworks or concepts that can prove helpful in understanding propaganda include the OODA Loop [As Angerman (2004) notes in the figure; i.e., "Orientation"]. Others are denial and deception, as defined by Bruce (2020) and hypergame theory (Kopp, 2003; Kovach et al., 2015). The former provides a general definition for denial and deception and explores it implicitly in the article, while the latter involves probability theory and the way that all possible permutations' known/unknown' for information; can impact the perceptions and actions of players in a game [assuming reciprocal and symmetrical intelligence cycle capabilities, inclusive of the personnel and infrastructure personnel involved (ODNI, n.d.)].

Conclusion

Propaganda, without regard to specific frameworks or concepts, has been shown to have played a large part from ancient to modern (or contemporary) times; and is pervasive throughout multiple geographical locations, social, cultural, and governmental (or political) types (Biographics, 2019; Bradford, 2023; Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2016; Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Agency [CISA], n.d.; International Spy Museum, 2023). Similar efforts, at least regarding U.S. management of malign foreign influence, can also be seen since as early as (if not more) 1937 into the modern day (Fondren, 2021; Goldenziel, 2022). Additionally, propaganda can still be considered a threat to the security of the United States, despite the appearance of both a whole-of-government approach that is inclusive of private sector partners (Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Agency [CISA], n.d.; Romeo, 2022; United States Department of State, n.d.).

Synopsis of Selected Resources for Further Reading

Additional resources, upon a cursory review, consist of: Laskin (2019), Nietzel (2016), and Pickard (2021). Laskin (2019) includes further information from a psychoanalytic framing. Nietzel (2019) provides information on Cold War-related subject matter. Finally, Pickard (2021) could be useful for information concerning history and its relation to media or further theory.

References

Angerman, W. (2004). Coming Full Circle with Boyd's OODA Loop Ideas: An Analysis of Innovation Diffusion and Evolution. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA425228 Biographics (Director). (2019, March 12). Sefton Delmer: The Master of Black Propaganda. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rt7B2LkFB6o Bradford, J. (2023). White, Gray And Black Propaganda: A Business Owner's Guide. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesagencycouncil/2023/02/13/white-gray-and-black-propaganda-a-business-owners-guide/?sh=50679e569afe Bruce, J. B. (2020). The Rise and Fall of an Intelligence Discipline– and Its Uncertain Future. 64(1). Central Intelligence Agency [CIA]. (2016). The Spymaster's Toolkit—CIA. https://www.cia.gov/stories/story/the-spymasters-toolkit/#propaganda Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Agency [CISA]. (n.d.). Foreign Influence Operations and Disinformation | Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency CISA. https://www.cisa.gov/topics/election-security/foreign-influence-operations-and-disinformation Fondren, E. (2021). "We are Propagandists for Democracy": The Institute for Propaganda Analysis' Pioneering Media Literacy Efforts to Fight Disinformation (1937–1942). American Journalism, 38(3), 258–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/08821127.2021.1950481 Goldenziel, J. (2022). The Disinformation Governance Board Is Dead. Here's The Right Way To Fight Disinformation. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/jillgoldenziel/2022/05/18/the-disinformation-governance-board-is-dead-heres-the-right-way-to-fight-disinformation/ International Spy Museum (Director). (2023, April 28). Makematic—White Propaganda (Clear Source). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3H8HnRtttkQ Kopp, C. (2003). Shannon, Hypergames and Information Warfare. Kovach, N. S., Gibson, A. S., & Lamont, G. B. (2015). Hypergame Theory: A Model for Conflict, Misperception, and Deception. Game Theory, 2015, e570639. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/570639 Laskin, A. V. (2019). Defining propaganda: A psychoanalytic perspective. Communication and the Public, 4(4), 305–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/2057047319896488 McCormick, K. (2023). How Quantum Physics Describes Earth's Weather Patterns | Quanta Magazine. https://www.quantamagazine.org/how-quantum-physics-describes-earths-weather-patterns-20230718/ Nietzel, B. (2016). Propaganda, psychological warfare and communication research in the USA and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. History of the Human Sciences, 29(4–5), 59–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952695116667881 ODNI. (n.d.). INTEL - How the IC Works. https://www.intelligence.gov/how-the-ic-works Pickard, V. (2021). Unseeing propaganda: How communication scholars learned to love commercial media. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-66 Romeo, J. (2022, October 11). Disinformation is a rising tide. Here's how to address it. World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/how-to-address-disinformation/ Smith, B. (n.d.). Propaganda | Definition, History, Techniques, Examples, & Facts | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/propaganda Stanley, J., & BigThink. (n.d.). What is propaganda? | Jason Stanley | Explain It Like I'm Smart by Big Think—YouTube. Retrieved August 2, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T8L8tGErQPs United States Department of State. (n.d.). Disarming Disinformation. United States Department of State. https://www.state.gov/disarming-disinformation/