State Use of Propaganda [Part 2]: The U.S. in War and Peace
- Discord(I)anT.Dobbs
- Sep 3, 2023
- 13 min read
Introduction
In Exploring Propaganda: A General Overview and Synopsis of Selected Resources for Further Reading, the author of this paper briefly examined and produced a general overview of propaganda. In the second part of this project, this document's writer reviewed the issue of Propaganda by a state actor [State Use of Propaganda (Part 1): Russia- Removing the 'maskirovka' on 'dezinformatsiya.']. In this one, another State actor's use of propaganda is examined. Initially, some resources will be reviewed in a style similar to an annotated bibliography, with selected information extracted as it relates to the topic or examples, citations, etc. Then each section [i.e., 'In War' and 'In Peace' and any subsections under each.] will be addressed. Finishing the post is a review of selected resources and videos for further information.
Review of Resources
Garrison (1999) is a paper that examines the role of public affairs in the 'global information environment' that the United States (US) military operates within. Garrison (1999, pp. 8-9) ties technological advances to playing a central role in the importance of information within the current battlefield. The author notes (p.8) that a significant impact was felt with the inception of real-time reporting from the battlefield during the Gulf War (1991) and states that future reporting will likely also incorporate satellite imagery. The author Garrison (1999, p. 9) asserts that the continuous information revolution will not only require changes to warfighting but also policy. Of note are particular concerns such as an enhanced capability to conduct asymmetric warfare and transmission via media platforms (e.g., per Garrison (1999) television and, i.e., 'broadcast media, radio, and television' [p. 10, para. 2])that help to shape and inform the total internalized narratives of the US population. The author states this could require direct countering narratives tied to malign influence campaigns. Other concerns cited by the author for future considerations are an increasingly complex and generally destabilized security challenge exacerbated by numerous factors; including the role of the limitation of available information in stability vulnerable countries as a factor for consideration, but implies mitigation of this limitation with consistently geographically diffuse technological advances in information and communications technologies. Public Affairs, as noted by Garrison (p. 10), is comprised of (1) Command Information, (2) Community Relations, and (3) Public Information. The first involves disseminating timely and accurate information by the responsible commander to 'soldiers, their families, civilian employees, and other internal audiences.'; The second relates to the bridge that supports civil-military understanding and relationships.; Finally, the third is the focus of Garrison (1999): Public Information, which aims to work with and support the media (and emphasizes it as an essential link between multiple other information operations). Overall, the author states that the role of Public Affairs is to establish credibility with the media to gain support for a military mission; however, counter-propaganda activity was lacking at the time of authoring.
In addressing propaganda, Garrison (1999, pp. 11-12 &11-15) states that, in essence, propaganda is the use of information to induce a desired attitude or action (or emotional/logical) through either direct or indirect means; and works with the organization of personal opinion. Propaganda can be blatantly obvious, such as the Image at the top of this post or the one under the In Peace Section, or subtle and play on many of the narratives that exist within a larger cultural (or even individual) narrative (Such as the Image under commercial which pulls on patriotic imagery, and ties in long-term popular American mythos or history [George Washington and the Cherry Tree (U.S. National Park Service) (nps.gov) given the patriotic and revolutionary setting, use of a Founding Father, etc.] to sell consumer products. Counter-propaganda is also defined as the author of efforts to counter adversarial influence operations through influence. Garrison (1999, p. 13-14) lists 'spin' as a commonly used technique and disinformation as the euphemism commonly used to frame propaganda. Additionally, the author also lists six military propaganda techniques: (1) Atrocity Stories, (2) Hyperbolic Inflation of Related 'Stakes,' (3)Dehumanization of an opponent, (4) Polarization, and (5) counter-propaganda.
Garrison (1999, pp.15-17) indicates that the growth and continued resources of additional information distribution will play a role in increased media coverage of conflicts and serve to, in some cases, undermine the national will (i.e., an example of Clausewitzian Center of Gravity) to support military-related efforts. Given malicious actors' near-certain exploitation of an increasingly complex information environment, Garrison (p.17) ties the continued need for Public Affairs practitioners to counter adversarial propaganda efforts. On pages 17 to 20, Garrison (1999) defines the differences between Public Affairs and Psychological Operations; which are delineated in doctrine, policy, and practice despite the blurriness. Garrison (1999, pp. 20-28) outlines several areas that experienced conflict in Eastern Europe as examples of the potential impact of counter-propaganda and, on pages 28-31, recommends truth-based counter-propaganda as a remedy; and concludes that it could be effectively used in modern information and communications environments.
Hansen (1995) is a voluminous yet informative 327-page article addressing the theory and practice of influence. A brief review indicates that it appears to take the perspectives of psychology, academia, military, and marketing. It does detail several cases of influence and practice-related concepts (i.e., reciprocity, commitment and consistency, social proof, linking, authority, and scarcity.) A key example for use in this paper is page 180, which highlights a marketing campaign that utilizes reciprocity.
Mace (2020) is a paper that provides information on the social aspects that were present during the US Revolutionary War. While the author breaks down the subject matter into several interesting categories, cursory reading indicates an implication toward perceptions of British actions helping to facilitate colonial efforts at incorporating, facilitating, and amplifying public support and opinion aligned with their goals, similar to revolutionary/insurgency movements. Of importance to this paper are pages 2-11, which discuss the use of propaganda in colonial messaging efforts before and during the Revolutionary War. This implies that regarding war efforts, propaganda has played a role in US military history since the birth of the country.
McClanahan (2002) is a study that looks at the role of propaganda in the US efforts (i.e., hearts and minds) to combat Jihadi-inspired terrorist groups such as al-Qaeda (AQ), which was the first group to exploit the modern information environment. McClanahan emphasizes the role that information and perception play in combatting terrorism (Such as countering associated radicalization narratives and gaining or acquiring cultural/social/etc. expertise for a given area). The author supports a whole-of-government approach and leveraging all the tools of national power to help enhance and enable such efforts.
Murphy and White (2007) tie some of the perceptions involved with modern propaganda to US usage in World War I and II. The author begins by indicating an initial neutral to hesitant stance for participation in WWI despite US and allied governments' efforts. However, the authors note this changed, given events with historical significance. Murphy and White (2007) indicate that the coordination and implementation of information-related activities in WWI were handled by the Committee on Public Information (CPI); which is viewed favorably in results (e.g., draft registration, war-bond/bond drives, public support, etc.). During the interwar period, the authors state that opinions and critiques of propaganda led to a generally unfavorable view of CPI. This led to the reorganization of CPI into the Office of War Information (OWI) to distance the critical opinion associated with its predecessor and public perception of propaganda in Nazi Germany (Murphy & White, 2007). The author implies that while effective, the OWI also faced criticism on some steps taken to implement informational supremacy. Murphy and White (2007) mention the critical element still present in modern US perceptions of propaganda that is exacerbated challenge-wise by an ever-expanding information environment. The authors recommend timely and truthful narratives or counternarratives as a potential option for responding to adversarial propaganda.
Nash (2019) supports incorporating cognitive domain considerations into modern warfighting doctrine for the United States Marine Corps (USMC). Of importance is that this helps the role that deception plays operationally and tactically. Of note are the part of modern technology and the information environment; as well as a general framework that incorporates cognitive domain considerations at all command levels. A potential iteration of such usage can be found in Figure 1, which can be seen in the In War section below. The implied aim is to influence the information used to form a decision that results in a favorable advantage or outcome (achieved most successfully under indirect).
According to Osborne (1990), the role that media (i.e., movies and television) has in ultimately helping to shape the narratives of the US populace. The author begins by stating that there are various formats that propaganda can take (i.e., verbal, written, visual, audio-visual, etc.) and that there are certain factors that influence the outcomes that propaganda has. Noting that despite the high cost and need to provide entertainment, motion pictures were a solid medium to facilitate the internalization of desired narratives (Osborne, 1990). While the author states that the focus of the study is the Hollywood War Movie, Osborne (1990) notes many additional contributions that the entertainment industry has made in times of conflict. Such items include the use of cartoon characters in messaging and the role of defense-related recruitment movies (Osborne, 1990, p. 11). After defining the concept of propaganda, the author begins examining the Hollywood war movie. This section notes a known tension between terms, particularly in the use of propaganda vs. information within the US (i.e., a liberal democracy). Osborne (1990) asserts that some ways that movies are used are explanatory (Such as explaining the causes, justifications, etc., or highlighting efforts and the cost of war). Another from the author is to reinforce the values and opposing values that commonly feature in wartime propaganda (e.g., WWI and WW2 of note). The author indicates a complicated relationship between the OWI and Hollywood; emphasizing the conflict between actively shaping the national will and providing for-profit motivations; with Hollywood choosing some level of cooperation due to the perceived existential threat. Following this, Osborne (1990) details many instances of motion pictures being used to influence opinion before beginning to examine the decline of film, which the author links to the advent of television and changing public sentiment about war (Exampled by the narrative framing and humanization of characters within the movies themselves.) Of note for television, Osborne (1990) implies that the distribution, availability, and presence in daily life helped television supplant motion pictures as an ideal medium.
Pickard (2021) presents a critical assessment of the underlying structure of commercial media systems (Primarily, per Pickard [2021], related to monopolistic practices, systemic racism, and the impact of capitalism), which facilitated the decline of propaganda as an area of study and was changed into the framework that underlies many modern communications studies, the inception of a limited effects model (i.e., the media does not have a significant impact on public opinion). Pickard (2021) begins by addressing the history of communications studies, indicating that prior to a less critical approach; the field was significantly willing to critique the various structures that facilitated misinformation. While the author notes many factors that influenced the decline of this critical assessment paradigm, the result from different ideological groups over time resulted in the institutionalization of propaganda as a tool for domestic and foreign influence.
Supporting Resources: Sokoloski (2005) is a thesis that advocates using marketing techniques and practices within a psychological operations setting. It supports the comparison between marketing and propaganda; particularly as both seek to 'sell' an idea that results in a desired outcome. Traversa (1995) is research seeking to address if content analysis can provide the motivations for combat from narratives (e.g., from flyers and ground combat personnel). The author finds four factors from various narratives that influence combat motivation but implies that the study is limited regarding potential generalizability and the lack of information to support analysis for a more nuanced or varied set of data to work with. Virginia (2014) seeks to examine the effective use of propaganda with other instruments of power in achieving an optimal outcome (Throughout various conflicts or timeframes in US history). Some of the factors the author associates with the successful use of propaganda are: Propaganda being consistent with actions taken or implemented and a clear strategic objective that the propaganda helps to increase support for war efforts.
In War
The use of propaganda by the US in war has a long history that continues into the present day, changing as advances in information and communications technology occur or the narrative by commercialized media platforms pivot to meet public opinion (Garrison, 1999; Mace, 2020; McClanahan, 2002; Murphy & White, 2007; Nash, 2019; Osborne, 1990; Pickard, 2021; Traversa, 1995; Virginia, 2014) and results in a favorable outcome or decision from the disseminating parties perception by the intended recipient(s) ((Garrison, 1999; Hansen, 2013; Osborne, 1990). Some of the uses domestically during wartime are recruitment efforts, supporting or increasing national will, better relationships with civilian populations, and serving other war-related efforts (Garrison, 1999; Mace, 2020; McClanahan, 2002; Osborne, 1990). There are multiple techniques and frameworks that can be used to accomplish influence operations (Garrison, 1999; Hansen, 2013; Sokoloski, 2005; Virginia, 2014,) and the use of commercial media helps to further extend the reach of messaging (Osborne, 1990; Pickard, 2021). It also has a presence strategically, operationally, and tactically (Garrison, 1999; Nash, 2019; Virginia, 2014). Figure 1 below is a potential iteration of the use of deception within a tactical setting as adapted from Nash (2019). The general goal is to (1) Defeat or render pointless the opposing force, (2) Provide a deceptive movement to mask the intent to, at some time, perform envelopment or double envelopment, and (3) In the event of the retreat of the opposing force provide harassment and continued depletion of personnel or equipment from an elevated position.
Figure 1
An Example for Tactical Deception adapted from Nash (2019)
Note: Adapted from Nash (2019). See the citing paragraph for Figure 1 in this document for further details.
In Peace
The primary use of propaganda in the US by the state is in the form of Public Service announcements. These are generally intended to create attitudes, associations, and behaviors that are within the public interest or good. It can advocate such things as abstaining from operating a motor vehicle (as seen below) or emphasizing the importance of dental hygiene. Lippert (2020) supports this as it provides a historical overview of posters for PSAs. However, as stated in Pickard (2021), propaganda has commercial aspects, which exacerbates the misinformation that occurs in the modern information ecosystem. In addition; the technology, systems, and processes that enable the current information environment are also essential considerations (Garrison, 1999; McClanahan, 2002; Murphy & White, 2007; Virginia, 2014).
Commercial propaganda (i.e., Marketing). Pickard (2021) raises concerns about underlying structural features in commercial propaganda but links the two conceptually. This is supported by Hansen (1995), which shows links between the theory and practice for each and provides examples of marketing, such as the use of reciprocity. It is also supported by the applicability of marketing techniques, frameworks, and practices incorporated with psychological operations (Sokoloski, 2005). Commercial actors can facilitate this with for-profit motivations (i.e., advertising) [Hansen, 2013; Osborne, 1990; Sokoloski, 2005] and a lack of critical research on the impact this has within a community or communities (Pickard, 2021).
Modern information network and influence. The current information environment is complex and dynamic, with multiple stakeholders and actors increasing the challenges in addressing propaganda (Garrison, 1999; McClanahan, 2002; Murphy & White, 2007; Virginia, 2014). Some examples of this are the continued rise and spread of conspiratorial narratives or beliefs within a larger population (ADL, 2021; Iannucci, n.d.), the presence of both State and Non-State actors, and the persistence of ideas tied to misinformation, disinformation, or propaganda. A highly relevant example is the continued attempt at interference with US elections by malign foreign actors. However, private and public efforts are working to combat the networks themselves (Goswami, 2023) or the underlying tools that can be used in such actions (Bajak & Dazio, 2023).
Conclusion
This paper has found that the use of propaganda by the US is present in both peace and war. One key finding is that much of the propaganda is based on truth and should align with actions to achieve a clearly defined strategic outcome (Garrison, 1999; McClanahan, 2002; Virginia, 2014). There are numerous approaches to addressing the adversarial use of propaganda, such as using counternarratives, using hearts and minds approaches, increasing critical research on propaganda, and the use of all the tools and aspects of national power (Garrison, 1999; McClanahan, 2002; Virginia, 2014). While the US continues to tread a fine line with the use of propaganda, it does serve an important purpose; as such, continued research is required, and the use of all governmental powers and the inclusion of all stakeholders in the process is implied in many of the recommendations from the resources used.
References
ADL. (2021). “The Great Replacement:” An Explainer | ADL. https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounder/great-replacement-explainer
Bajak, F., & Dazio, S. (2023). FBI and European partners seize major malware network in blow to global cybercrime. https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/opinion/fbi-and-european-partners-seize-major-malware-network-in-blow-to-global-cybercrime/ar-AA1fXlzb
Garrison, W. C. (1999). Information Operations and Counter-Propaganda: Making a Weapon of Public Affairs.: Defense Technical Information Center. https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA363892
Goswami, R. (2023, August 29). Meta says it has disrupted a massive disinformation campaign linked to Chinese law enforcement. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2023/08/29/meta-disrupts-chinese-misinformation-network-linked-to-law-enforcement-.html
Hansen, W. G. (2013). Influence: Theory and Practice.
Iannucci, L. (n.d.). LibGuides: Media Literacy & Misinformation: How it Spreads - Social Media & Conspiracy Theories. https://guides.monmouth.edu/media_literacy/ConspTheories
Library of Congress. (n.d.). Home | Library of Congress [Web page]. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. https://www.loc.gov/
Lippert, A. (2020, April 30). A Brief History of PSA Posters. Poster House. https://posterhouse.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-psas/
Mace, D. R. (2020). American Attempts to Gain Public Support: American Revolutionary Era, 1763-1777.
McClanahan, J. R. Jr. (2002). America’s Information War on Terrorism: Winning Hearts and Minds in the Muslim World: Defense Technical Information Center. https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA402074
Murphy, D. M., & White, J. F. (2007). Propaganda: Can a Word Decide a War? The US Army War College Quarterly: Parameters, 37(3). https://doi.org/10.55540/0031-1723.2383
Nash, C. C. (2019). The Marine Corps and Future War in the Cognitive Domain: A Concept for the Future of Combined Arms.
Osborne, B. (1990). Propaganda Tool: The Hollywood War Movie and Its Usurpation by TV: Defense Technical Information Center. https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA222524
Pickard, V. (2021). Unseeing propaganda: How communication scholars learned to love commercial media. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-66
Sokoloski, J. A. (2005). Strategic PSYOP Management: A Marketing Management Approach.
Traversa, D. J. (1995). Motivational Factors in Combat: A Comparison of German and American Soldiers in World War II Using Content Analysis.
Virginia, R. A. J. (2014). WHY WE FIGHT: MASS PERSUASION, MORALE, AND AMERICAN PUBLIC OPINION FROM WORLD WAR I UNTIL THE PRESENT.
Additional References for Further Reading, Exploration, and Examples For Viewing
Curtis and Nichol (1989) provide an annotated bibliography for Psychological Operations and cover a range of resource types and several topics. Hansen (2013) is a broad overview of influence-related theory and practice. While it is used only for example within this document, it should provide an informative read moving forward. Below are three videos that each give an example of various types of propaganda. The first is from the US National Archives (2013). It depicts the media aspect of an initiative to grow the presence of women in the defense workforce, with framing related to supporting the war effort. The Best Film Archives (2017) depicts a cartoon from 1948 presenting anti-Communist narratives. The Best Film Archives (2018) is an educational film that seeks to increase awareness of Cold War-era adversarial propaganda. Finally, Vintage Fanatic (2013) is a PSA that advocates for dental hygiene. An additional resource comes from Iannucci (2023), a research guide on media literacy and misinformation and/or Lippert (2020), which examines the medium of posters in communicating to or informing the public and shaping public opinion historically.
References
Curtis, G., & Nichol, J. (1989). Annotated Bibliography on Psychological Operations [dataset]. https://doi.org/10.1037/e623082007-001
Hansen, W. G. (2013). Influence: Theory and Practice.
Iannucci, L. (n.d.). LibGuides: Media Literacy & Misinformation: How it Spreads - Social Media & Conspiracy Theories. https://guides.monmouth.edu/media_literacy/ConspTheories
Lippert, A. (2020, April 30). A Brief History of PSA Posters. Poster House. https://posterhouse.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-psas/
The Best Film Archives (Director). (2017, April 29). Anti-Communist Propaganda Cartoon | Make Mine Freedom | 1948. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NxsNU7ZZAlU
The Best Film Archives. (2018). How to Recognize Propaganda | Cold War Era Educational Film | ca. 1957—YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ATY0KhMSOfY
US NATIONAL ARCHIVES. (2013). Women in Defense, 1941—YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tRH70pR_oCo
Vintage Fanatic (Director). (2013, July 17). Vintage Old 1960’s Dental Health Public Service Announcement PSA Commercial. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vpGkFi8p7SQ
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